Misperceived Discrimination

class: center, middle, inverse, title-slide

.title[
# Misperceived Discrimination
]
.author[
### Merlin Schaeffer
]
.date[
### 2024-06-04
]

---

layout: true
class: clear

# Perceived Prevalence .font50[How prevalent is discrimination (mis-)perceived to be?]

.left-column[
<img src="./media/Janus.webp" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.center[.backgrnote[*Source*: ChatGPT 4]]
]

???
- Second dimension of Contested Discrimination: Competing views `$rightarrow$` competing perceived prevalences.
- Two examples that are not directly related but represent my curiosity on the topic:
  + According to both black/women and men/white people, relations have considerably deteriorated in the US.
  + Note that Male/white perspective is ambiguous.
- Still, the question is: Have things really been better in 2001?

---

.right-column[
<img src="./media/Gender.png" width="64%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
<img src="./media/Race.png" width="64%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.center[.backgrnote[*Source*: [Gallup](https://news.gallup.com/poll/1687/race-relations.aspx)]]
]

???
- A divergence of perceptions is more obvious when it comes to the topic of my work.
- ChatGPT graphic: 
  1. How come that the same reality may be perceived so differently?
  2. Is there also a trend over time?
  3. How do these perceptions deviate from "reality"?
---

.right-column[
<img src="./media/TV2.png" width="65%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.center[.backgrnote[*Source*: [TV2](https://nyheder.tv2.dk/samfund/2021-06-07-flere-danskere-ser-racisme-som-et-udbredt-problem)]]

<img src="./media/Menneske.png" width="65%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.center[.backgrnote[*Source*: [Institut for Menneske Rettigheder](chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://menneskeret.dk/files/media/document/Oplevet%20etnisk%20diskrimination%20i%20Danmark.pdf)]]
]

---

.right-column[
| Social Mechanism | Minority | Majority |
|-----------|------------|--------|
| Divergent *Awareness* | Integration `$\rightarrow$` awareness of group's enduring marginalized status. | Minority integration `$\rightarrow$` impression of successful diversification of society. | 
| Divergent *Definition* | Claim to equality `$\rightarrow$` increased sensitivity & confidence to interpret subtle events as discrimination. | Maintain way of life and privileges `$\rightarrow$` set high standards for what constitutes discrimination and be accused of it. |
| Divergent *Opportunity Structure* | ... there are `$\frac{93}{7} = 13.3$` in which a minority experiences it. | For every interaction in which a majority member engages in or witnesses discrimination, ... <br> `$\leftarrow$` |
]

???
- Three social mechanisms could explain a trend of divergence.

- **Do the 3 mechanisms drive perceptions away from "reality"?**

- The field lacks a methodology to measure misperceptions of discrimination – a crucial barrier.
- **Remainder of talk: My experimentation with various methods** to measure misperceptions of discrimination. 
  + But **no answer yet**, whether these three social mechanisms drive them!

---
layout: false
class: clear

.content-box-blue[.center[
**How accurate do majority and minority citizens <br> perceive ethno-racial discrimination?**
]]

.left-column[
<br>
<br>

.center[We cannot observe <br> *hidden* intentions.]

<img src="https://www.skolske.sk/storage/article/780x520_1588025770_article.jpg" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]

.right-column[
.push-left[
<br>
<img src="media/Black_Female_Caller2.png" width="35%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]
.push-right[
<br>
<img src="media/White_Female_Caller.png" width="35%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]
<img src="./media/Obv_example.png" width="75%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.center[.backgrnote[*Source*: Schaeffer, Krakowski, Romarri, and Rosenberg (2024)]]

.center[.font90[
`$\rightarrow$` **Price**: .alert[Fictitious cases] identify discrimination in the .alert[aggregate]!
]]]

---
class: inverse middle center
# Misperceived *Prevalence* of Discrimination

<br>
<br>
.content-box-green[
**Claim 1**: Majority citizens tend to *over*perceive prevalence of minority discrimination.

**Claim 2**: Lack of awareness does not explain low support for anti-discrimination legislation.
]

???
- First method: Misperceived prevalence.
- Focus on majority members: Native-born Danes with native-born parents.

---
# Misperceived *Prevalence*

.center[
<img src="./media/Merlin1.png" width="50%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.backgrnote[*Source*: Schaeffer, Krakowski, and Olsen (2023)]
]

???
- Inspired by two economists: We explain field experiment and ask people what outcome they suspect.

---
# Misperceived *Prevalence*

.right-column[
.center[
<img src="./media/all_misp-2.png" width="85%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.backgrnote[*Source*: Schaeffer, Krakowski, and Olsen (2023). Post-stratification weighted results. `$n_{\text{Hiring}} = 1,045$`, `$n_{\text{Housing}} = 1,041$`, `$n_{\text{Politics}} = 1,043$`, and `$n_{\text{Schools}} = 1,041$` mainstream-majority Danes.
]]]

???
- We did this with all filed experiments conducted in DK so far: Peter, Asmus, etc.
- Let me help you interpret this.

.left-column[
<img src="./media/PredictPrev.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]

???
- In contrast to 3 mechanisms: No evidence of vested interest in perceiving little discrimination.
  + Even among those who are against immigration!
  + Only education: We academics are more off!
---
# Misperceived *Prevalence*

.push-left[
<img src="./media/HaalandRoth.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.center[.backgrnote[*Source*: Haaland and Roth (2023)]]
]

???
- Same in the US for discrimination against Black people.

.push-left[
<img src="./media/Schaerer.png" width="70%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.center[.backgrnote[*Source*: Schaerer, du
Plessis, Nguyen, van
Aert, Tiokhin, Lakens, Giulia Clemente, Pfeiffer, Dreber, Johannesson, Clark, and Luis Uhlmann (2023)]]
]

???
- Same for how prevalent we believe gender discrimination to be.

---
layout: false
# Factural Correction

.backgrnote[.center[*Source*: Schaeffer, Krakowski, and Olsen (2023); Post-stratification weighted results. n = 769.]]

???
- Unsurprisingly, informing people about the actual result, does not change their recognition of the problem.
  + Not even among those who underestimated the extent of discrimination.

---
class: clear
# Divergent Definition?

.push-left[
<img src="./media/Fig5_Correction_a1.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />

.backgrnote[.center[*Source*: Schaeffer, Krakowski, and Olsen (2023); Post-stratification weighted results. n = 769.]]
]

.push-right[

.left-column[
<br>
<img src="./media/Krarup1.png" width="80%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]

.right-column[
<br>
<img src="./media/Krarup2.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.center[.backgrnote[*Source*: Østergaard (2020)]]
]

.center[
<iframe width="500" height="290" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/HNU_4nEnPNc?si=1tyj-xGYI-rVKcOO" title="YouTube video player" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share" referrerpolicy="strict-origin-when-cross-origin" allowfullscreen></iframe>
]]

???
- But maybe the causality runs the other way around: 
  + Because its not seen as unjust, it is prevalent?

---
class: inverse middle center

# Mis*expected* *Personal* Discrimination

<br>
<br>
.content-box-green[
**Claim 3**: Typically, people do not expect ethno-racial discrimination, <br>but when they do, their expectations tend to be wrong.

**Claim 4**: Perceived and expected discrimination are costly.
]

???
- I initially started thinking about this 10 years ago.
- My original question was another one: Are there negative consequences of perceiving too much discrimination?
  + Does it make you unhappy beyond actual reason for it?
- Personal discrimination: **Do _you_ misperceive the discrimination that _you_ experience?**
- Much more difficult: Actual: **Repeated experimental observations** for **real people who can have perceptions**!

---
class: clear
# Central Idea .font70[Mutual evaulation in behavioral games]

.left-column[
`$\rightarrow$` Observe **actual €** sent.

`$\rightarrow$` Survey **expected €** received.

<br>
<br>
.alert[.center[True first name & city of residence from registers]]<br>
.backgrnote[Alisina, Ahmad, Anne, Binyamin, Joyce, Somaia, Sarah, Hayriye, Saibe, Björn, Salem, Fabienne, Sadet, Linda, Margarita, Ali, Joseph, Mhd Kheir, Baran, Bahaa, Jebran, Reno, Seiji, Irina, Ajsel, Christine, Rahim, Yaw Abrefa, Mark, Anjali Dev, Elmar, Anke, Laura, Heiko, ...]
]

.right-column[
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<img src="./media/Sender-en.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]

???
- Uni of observation is an interaction, not a person!

---
# LLM-based Coding of Names
.push-left[
<img src="./media/HuggingFace.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />

.font80[

``` r
library(text)

# Predict ethnicity of first names.
zeroshot_ethnic <- text::textZeroShot(
  # The list of first names to be predicted.
  sequences = vornamen,
  # sequences = vornamen[1:20],
  # The possible origins for the first names.
  candidate_labels = c(
    "deutscher", "muslimischer", "türkischer", 
    "ostasiatischer", "osteuropäischer", "christlicher"),
  # Indicates whether multiple genders should be predicted for each first name.
  multi_label = TRUE,
  # The template for the hypothesis that is generated for each first name.
  hypothesis_template = "Das ist ein {} Vorname.",
  # The model that is used to predict the gender.
  # model = "MoritzLaurer/mDeBERTa-v3-base-mnli-xnli") %>%
  model = "michaelp11/zeroshot-classification-de") %>%
  # Renames the column `sequences` to `vorname`.
  rename(vorname = sequence)
```
]]

.push-right[
<img src="Aarhus_files/figure-html/unnamed-chunk-22-1.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]

---
# 10 Trust Games per Participant

.push-left[.font80[
- *Majority participants*: 
  + 3 games with mainstream players.
  + 7 games with immigrant origin players.

- *Immigrant origin participants*: 
  + 7 games with mainstream players.
  + 3 games with immigrant origin players.

`$\rightarrow$` Observe **actual €** sent to others.

<table class="table" style="color: black; width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
 <thead>
  <tr>
   <th style="text-align:left;"> Name </th>
   <th style="text-align:right;"> N </th>
   <th style="text-align:right;"> % </th>
  </tr>
 </thead>
<tbody>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;"> Majority with 
 German name </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 10650 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 53.0 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;"> Minority with 
 Christian name </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 330 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 1.6 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;"> Minority with 
 East-Asian name </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 1310 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 6.5 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;"> Minority with 
 East-European name </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 1640 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 8.2 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;"> Minority with 
 German name </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 3430 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 17.1 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;"> Minority with 
 Muslim name </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 2110 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 10.5 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;"> Minority with 
 Turkish name </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 630 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 3.1 </td>
  </tr>
</tbody>
</table>

]]

???
- Scientist: Repeated observations.

.push-right[
<img src="media/Sender-en.png" width="80%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />

<img src="Aarhus_files/figure-html/unnamed-chunk-26-1.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]

???
- Explain: Dots, groups, boxplots, main message.
- Immigrants entrusted their game partner's a bit less.
  + Later: This is partly driven by reports of past discrimination & expected discrimination.
  
---
# Entrusted € .font60[By game partner]

.push-left[

- *Majority participants*: 
  + 3 games with mainstream players.
  + .backgrnote[7 games with immigrant origin players.]

- *Immigrant origin participants*: 
  + 7 games with mainstream players.
  + .backgrnote[3 games with immigrant origin players.]

`$\rightarrow$` Observe **actual €** sent to others.

<table class="table" style="color: black; width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
 <thead>
  <tr>
   <th style="text-align:left;"> Name </th>
   <th style="text-align:right;"> N </th>
   <th style="text-align:right;"> % </th>
  </tr>
 </thead>
<tbody>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;"> Majority with 
 German name </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 3137 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 37.3 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;"> Minority with 
 East-Asian name </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 922 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 11.0 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;"> Minority with 
 German name </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 2414 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 28.7 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;"> Minority with 
 Muslim name </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 1484 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 17.7 </td>
  </tr>
  <tr>
   <td style="text-align:left;"> Minority with 
 Turkish name </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 445 </td>
   <td style="text-align:right;"> 5.3 </td>
  </tr>
</tbody>
</table>

]

.push-right[
<img src="media/Sender-en.png" width="80%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />

<img src="Aarhus_files/figure-html/unnamed-chunk-30-1.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]

???
What did their game partner's entrust them?
- Now focus on games with mainstream partners.

---
# LLM-coded connotations & trust

---
# Actual Trust Discrimination .font60[By game partner]

.left-column[
`$$\text{Act Discr}_{ij} = €_{ij} - \bar{€}_{j\text{(Germ. name)}}$$`
]

.right-column[
<img src="Aarhus_files/figure-html/unnamed-chunk-32-1.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]

---
class: clear
# After the 10 Games .font60[Expectations to be discriminated]

---
# Actual vs. Expected Discrimination

---
# Actual vs. Expected Discrimination

---
# Actual vs. Expected Discrimination

---
class: clear
# The Cost of Perceived and Expected Discrimination

.push-right[
<img src="Aarhus_files/figure-html/unnamed-chunk-34-1.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]

.push-left[
<img src="Aarhus_files/figure-html/unnamed-chunk-35-1.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />

.center[.font90[
`$(-0.488€  + -0.113€)  \times 3 \times \frac{2}{3} \times 2 = -2.4€$`

`$\frac{-2.4€}{20€} = \color{red}{-12\%}$`

]]]

---
class: inverse middle center

# Mis*perceived Personal* Discrimination

.push-left[
<br>
<br>
<img src="https://www.wenzelfenton.com/wp-content/themes/FoundationPress/assets/images/what-is-employment-discrimination-feature.jpg" width="80%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]

.push-right[
<br>
<br>
.content-box-green[
**Claim 6**: People tend to overinterpret ambiguous signals as evidence of discrimination.

**Claim 7**: Majority members overinterpret signals of advantage more than minorities overinterpret signals of disadvantage.
]]

---
# Follow-up Experiment .font60[Disadvantage cue]

**On average, your ten game partners sent and thereby entrusted 6 € to you.**

In addition, your ten game partners played trust games with other 68 more participants. 25 of these other participants had names that sound typically German.

Below you see a selection of three of these participants with names that sound typically German.

**On average, your game partners sent and thereby entrusted 8 € to these three persons:**

Annegret from Hamburg

Klaus from Berlin

Hartmut from München

**The three have thus received 2 € more than you. How do you rate this result?**

<select class='webex-select'><option value='blank'></option><option value='answer'>My name played a role: I was disadvantaged by my game partners.</option><option value=''>My name did not play a role: I was simply unlucky</option></select>

---
# Follow-up Experiment .font60[Advantage cue]

**On average, your ten game partners sent and thereby entrusted 8 € to you.**

In addition, your ten game partners played trust games with other 68 more participants. 25 of these other participants had names that sound typically German.

Below you see a selection of three of these participants with names that sound typically German.

**On average, your game partners sent and thereby entrusted 6 € to these three persons:**

Annegret from Hamburg

Klaus from Berlin

Hartmut from München

**The three have thus received 2 € less than you. How do you rate this result?**

<select class='webex-select'><option value='blank'></option><option value='answer'>My name played a role: I was advantaged by my game partners.</option><option value=''>My name did not play a role: I was simply lucky.</option></select>

---
# Follow-up Experiment .font60[Equality cue]

**On average, your ten game partners sent and thereby entrusted 7 € to you.**

In addition, your ten game partners played trust games with other 68 more participants. 25 of these other participants had names that sound typically German.

Below you see a selection of three of these participants with names that sound typically German.

**On average, your game partners sent and thereby entrusted 7 € to these three persons:**

Annegret from Hamburg

Klaus from Berlin

Hartmut from München

**The three have thus received the same amount as. How do you rate this result?**

<select class='webex-select'><option value='blank'></option><option value='answer'>My name played a role: In this case I nevertheless received the same.</option><option value=''>My name did not play a role: I was treated equally by my game partners.</option></select>

---
layout: true
# My Name Played a Role ...

---

---

---

---
layout: true
# Accurate Perception .font60[My name played a role]

---

---

---

---

---
layout: false
# Conclusion .font70[for now ...]

.push-left[
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>

.font140[.center[
.alert[Thank you for your attention!]
]]]

.push-right[.content-box-green[
**Claim 1**: Majority citizens tend to overperceive prevalence of minority discrimination.

**Claim 2**: Lack of awareness does not explain low support for anti-discrimination legislation.

**Claim 3**: Typically, people do not expect ethno-racial discrimination, but when they do, their expectations tend to be wrong.

**Claim 4**: Perceived and expected discrimination are costly.

**Claim 5**: People tend to overinterpret ambiguous signals as evidence of discrimination.

**Claim 6**: Majority members overinterpret signals of advantage more than minorities overinterpret signals of disadvantage.
]]

---
layout: false
count: false
# References

.push-left[.font70[
Haaland, I. and C. Roth (2023). "Beliefs About Racial Discrimination and Support for Pro-Black
Policies". In: _Review of Economics and Statistics_, pp. 40-53.

Østergaard, A. (2020). _Detektor: Efter racismedebat – Dansk Folkeparti anerkender
forskelsbehandling_.

Schaeffer, M., K. Krakowski, and A. L. Olsen (2023). "Correcting Misperceptions about Ethno-Racial
Discrimination: The Limits of Evidence-Based Awareness Raising to Promote Support for Equal-Treatment
Policies". In: _SocArXiv_.

Schaeffer, M., K. Krakowski, A. Romarri, et al. (2024). "Far-right Electoral Success Exacerbates
Administrative Discrimination Against Minorities: Evidence from a Field Experiment in Italy". In:
_Unpublished manuscript_.

Schaerer, M., C. du Plessis, M. H. B. Nguyen, et al. (2023). "On the trajectory of discrimination: A
meta-analysis and forecasting survey capturing 44 years of field experiments on gender and hiring
decisions". In: _Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes_, p. 104280.
]]

.push-right[.font70[

]]

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<br>

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<br>

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